The amount of compensatory sweating depends on the patient, the damage that the white rami communicans incurs, and the amount of cell body reorganization in the spinal cord after surgery.
Other potential complications include inadequate resection of the ganglia, gustatory sweating, pneumothorax, cardiac dysfunction, post-operative pain, and finally Horner’s syndrome secondary to resection of the stellate ganglion.
www.ubcmj.com/pdf/ubcmj_2_1_2010_24-29.pdf

After severing the cervical sympathetic trunk, the cells of the cervical sympathetic ganglion undergo transneuronic degeneration
After severing the sympathetic trunk, the cells of its origin undergo complete disintegration within a year.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0442.1967.tb00255.x/abstract

Monday, July 8, 2013

Vascular sympathetic denervation can lead to degeneration of the smooth muscle of arteries leading to medial arterial calcification and stiffening of the arteries.

Sympathetic denervation of the peripheral arterial system may occur quite early in the evolution of neuropathy and has major effects on blood flow and vascular responses and causes structural changes in the arterial wall (Edmonds 2004). Vascular sympathetic denervation can lead to degeneration of the smooth muscle of arteries leading to medial arterial calcification and stiffening of the arteries. This calcification may assume the histological characteristics of bone.

Unilateral lumbar sympathectomy in humans, both in diabetics and non-diabetics, has been show to result in medial wall calcification on the ipsilateral side (Goebel and Fuessl 1983). Unilateral sympathectomy in animals leads to excess deposition of cholesterol on the operated side and the occurrence of cholesterol sclerosis in the rabbit's aorta was accelerated by removal of the coeliac ganglion (Harrison 1938). Furthermore, in animal models, denervation of smooth muscle leads to striking pathological changes, including atrophy of muscle fibres with foci of degeneration (Kerper and Collier 1926). Arterial calcification in initiated within senescent atrophic smooth muscle (Morgan 1980).

Medial arterial calcification in the Pima Indians is significantly associated with an increased prevalence of cardiovascular mortality (Everhart et al 1988). Medial calcification may be important factor in development of peripheral vascular disease, which in diabetes shows a predilection for the distal arteries below the knee and is unexplained. Chantelau reported an association of below knee atherosclerosis to medial arterial calcification (Chantelau et al. 1995).

p. 653

Autonomic Failure: A Textbook of Clinical Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System[Hardcover]

Christopher J. Mathias (Author), Roger Bannister (Author)

Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA; 5 edition (July 24, 2013)
Language: English
ISBN-10: 0198566344
ISBN-13: 978-0198566342

sympathectomy interrupts neural messages to many different organs, glands and muscles

Acquired cardiovascular disease following Sympathectomy

We found statistically significant differences (P < .05) in both time and frequency domains. Parameters that evaluate global cardiac autonomic activity (total power, SD of normal R-R intervals, SD of average normal R-R intervals) and vagal activity (rhythm corresponding to percentage of normal R-R intervals with cycle greater than 50 ms relative to previous interval, square root of mean squared differences of successive normal R-R intervals, high-frequency power, high-frequency power in normalized units) were statistically significantly increased after sympathectomy. Low-frequency power in normalized units, reflecting sympathetic activity, was statistically significantly decreased after sympathectomy. Low-/high-frequency power ratio also showed a significant decrease, indicating relative decrease in sympathetic activity and increase in vagal activity.

The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
Volume 137, Issue 3, March 2009, Pages 664-669

Surgical and chemical sympathectomy can alter cellular proliferation

Surgical denervation and chemical sympathectomy can alter cellular proliferation, B- and T-cell responsiveness and lymphocyte migration in lymphoid organs [17].

In vitro studies have shown that neuropeptides can have numerous effects, either inhibiting or stimulating the proliferation, differentiation and functions of immune cells [19]* Development of systemic lupus erythematosus in mice is associated with alteration of neuropeptide concentrations in inﬂamed kidneys and immunoregulatory organs

Neuroscience Letters 248 (1998) 97– 100

our ignorance of the mechanisms of primary hyperhidrosis and of the effect of sympathetic ablation

second thoracic sympathetic ganglion was most commonly located (50%) in the second intercostal space

anatomic variations of the T2 nerve root

6 (9.1%) sides showed a single large ganglion formed by the stellate and the second thoracic sympathetic ganglia. The second thoracic sympathetic ganglion was most commonly located (50%) in the second intercostal space. Conclusion: The anatomic variations of the intrathoracic nerve of Kuntz and the second thoracic sympathetic ganglion were characterized in human cadavers. Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery Y. 2002, vol. 123, No. 3, pages 498-501 [bibl. : 14 ref. http://www.refdoc.fr/Detailnotice?idarticle=9466218

sympathectomy may constitute malpractice

Referring an anxious patient with palmar hyperhidrosis to surgery may constitute malpractice

"A surgical treatment for anxiety-triggered palmar hyperhidrosis is not unlike treating tearfulness in major depression by severing the nerves to the lacrimal glands."

"Referring an anxious patient with palmar hyperhidrosis to surgery without first completing a proper trial of psychotropic medication may constitute malpractice especially if the patient experiences some of the more severe surgical complications which can occur during sympathectomy" (Bracha et al. 2006 emphasis added)

hyperhidrosis is not related with social phobia or personality disorder

The total reward dependence and persistence scores were significantly higher in hyperhidrosis patients. The fear of uncertainty in the harm avoidance scale was found to be significantly greater in hyperhidrosis patients. Regarding character dimensions, the total score in each of the subscales self-directedness, cooperativeness and self-transcendence was found to be higher in hyperhidrosis patients. Conclusion: The higher scores of all subscales of character dimensions in hyperhidrosis patients suggest that hyperhidrosis is not related with social phobia or personality disorder.

http://www.online.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=ShowFulltext&ArtikelNr=99589&Ausgabe=232867&ProduktNr=224164

Muliptle organ failure as a consequence of elective sympathectomy

In the post-sympathectomy patient, the abnormalsympathetic skin response may lead to peripheral vascular failureor the reduced cardiac chronotropic response may impair thebody’s capacity to compensate for shock. These may havecontributed to the rapid development of shock and severe multipleorgan dysfunction syndrome in this patient.
He had multiple organ dysfunction syndrome develop, with severerenal and hepatic failure, grade II hepatic encephalopathy,and disseminated intravascular coagulation. He responded remarkablywell to aggressive supportive measures including forced alkalinediuresis, and he was eventually discharged home after 1 month. The patient was previously a healthy, physically fit, nonsmoker.He worked as a body building trainer and led an active, sportylifestyle. The only significant medical history was that hehad received thoracic sympathectomy for axillary hyperhidrosis4 years ago at another hospital.

http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/full/84/3/1025

the muscles that are supplied by these nerves shorten and tighten

This now well-established but generally under-appreciated principle of physiology is aptly known as 'Cannon's Law of Denervation Supersensitivity'. It describes the wide ranging effects of the complete loss of nerve inputs to a variety of bodily structures under experimental conditions. One of the many responses to nerves that are sick or dysfunctional (now termed Disuse Supersensitivity) is that the muscles that are supplied by these nerves shorten and tighten (due to the supersensitivity of both the muscle's specialized stretch receptors and motor nerve-muscle junctions), resulting not only in muscle spasm and stiffness which limit flexibility, but a whole sequence of pain compounding reactions. The two earliest are that localized taut bands of muscle fibers begin to compress the small specialized pain sensing (and now extra-sensitive) nerve fibers within the muscle (known as myofascial tender or trigger points) causing type 1 pain, and the compressed muscles do not allow proper blood flow in, or waste products to be removed. This leads to a build up of lactic acid, which further enhances the perception of pain through type 2 pain mechanisms. Continued and prolonged muscle shortening or contracture gradually leads to increased mechanical tension on the muscle's tendonous attachments to bone, causing all of the various tendonitis (types 1 & 2 pain) syndromes throughout the body. The end result is a truly vicious snowballing cycle of pain, with the muscle shortening further increasing pressure on the nerves.

www.northwestims.com/faq-4.html

Cannon's law of denervation tells us that if a post-ganglionic neurone has it's pre-ganglionic input removed, then it will become super-sensitive to the normal neurotransmitters that mediate that pre-ganglionic input. There is a variety of reasons for this, including up-regulation of receptors for the neurotransmitter(s), post-receptor effects, and impaired removal of neurotransmitters from the synapse

www.anaesthetist.com/anaes/patient/ans/

Most authors do not describe clinically significant capsular adhesions as a predominant finding in the chronic phase of this condition. Instead, pathologic data confirm an active process of hyperplastic fibroplasia and excessive type III collagen secretion that lead to soft-tissue contractures of the aforementioned structures (ie, the coracohumeral ligament, soft tissues of rotator interval, the subscapularis muscle, the subacromial bursae). However, these findings were observed in surgical patients who had severe and late-phase disease and cannot be applied to early phases of the disease.

From the chromosomal, cytochemical, and histologic points of view, the soft-tissue contractures are identical to those seen in a Dupuytren contracture of the hand. These contractures result in the classic progressive loss of ROM of the glenohumeral joint, which affects external rotation and abduction, then flexion, adduction, and extension (in descending order of severity). Despite these histopathologic similarities, the favorable and regressive outcome of adhesive capsulitis differs from the unfavorable and progressive outcome of Dupuytren disease.

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/326828-overview#a0104

second thoracic sympathetic ganglion was most commonly located (50%) in the second intercostal space

anatomic variations of the T2 nerve root

LIMITED SYMPATHECTOMY DOES NOT REDUCE SEVERITY OF SIDE-EFFECTS

On univariate and multivariate analysis, the extent of denervation was not associated with the occurrence or the severity of compensatory sweating.

Compensatory sweating and temporary relief/recurrence were equally considered to be the main causes of dissatisfaction.

CONCLUSION: Compensatory sweating was the most common long-term complication of thoracodorsal sympathectomy for primary hyperhidrosis. Its incidence and severity were not associated with the extent of sympathectomy.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12514588

Segmental myoclonus was associated with thoracic sympathectomy

Spinal myoclonus was associated with laminectomy, remote effect of cancer, spinal cord injury, post-operative pseudomeningocele, laparotomy, thoracic sympathectomy, poliomyelitis, herpes myelitis, lumbosacral radiculopathy, spinal extradural block, and myelopathy due to demyelination, electrical injury, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and cervical spondylosis.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3753263

Spinal myoclonus is typically associated with a localized area of damaged tissue (focal lesion). The injured area may include direct damage of the spinal cord or may cause abnormal changes in the function of the spinal cord.

http://www.wemove.org/myo/myo_pc.html

Spinal myoclonus following a peripheral nerve injury: a case report

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2526081/

Hemodynamic changes in vertebral and carotid arteries were observed after sympathicotomy for PH

Cell body reorganization in the spinal cord after surgery to treat sweaty palms

The amount of compensatory sweating depends on the patient, the damage that the white rami communicans incurs, and the amount of cell body reorganization in the spinal cord after surgery.

Other potential complications include inadequate resection of the ganglia, gustatory sweating, pneumothorax, cardiac dysfunction, post-operative pain, and finally Horner’s syndrome secondary to resection of the stellate ganglion.
www.ubcmj.com/pdf/ubcmj_2_1_2010_24-29.pdf

After severing the cervical sympathetic trunk, the cells of the cervical sympathetic ganglion undergo transneuronic degeneration
After severing the sympathetic trunk, the cells of its origin undergo complete disintegration within a year.
http://www.date.hu/acta-agraria/2002-08i/welento.pdf

Receptor hypersensitivity is a common problem

Because of their size and location, injuries to the sympathetic ganglia or chain is rarely indicated or performed. Receptor hypersensitivity is a common problem after significant sympathetic injury, including clammy hands, erythema, and allodynia. When sympathetic nerves regenerate, they may establish aberrant connections to sensory receptors, muscles, or other sympathetics receptors; this may lead to an over-response or abnormal response.
http://wiki.cns.org/wiki/index.php/Injury,_Sympathetic_Nerve

After severing the cervical sympathetic trunk, the cells of the cervical sympathetic ganglion undergo transneuronic degeneration
After severing the sympathetic trunk, the cells of its origin undergo complete disintegration within a year.
http://www.date.hu/acta-agraria/2002-08i/welento.pdf

cross-inhibitory control of various afferent in the spinal cord

In conclusion, our results suggest that cross-inhibitory control by various afferents in the spinal cord may exist in the feet as well as in the contralateral hand. The release of cross-inhibitory control by T3 sympathicotomy results in vasoconstriction and a decrease of skin temperature on the contralateral hand and the feet.

The basic neuronal network for this reciprocal organization is probably located in the spinal level (15). Therefore, the reduction in the contralateral skin temperature may be explained by cross-inhibitory control of various afferent in the spinal cord.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2722005/

Contralateral temperature changes of the finger surface during video endoscopic sympathectomy for palmar hyperhidrosis
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8832515

Effects of upper abdominal sympathectomy on gastric acid, serum gastrin, and catecholamines

Selective upper abdominal sympathectomy increased basal acid output in rats but was without effect on stimulated acid output, serum gastrin concentration, and gastric mucosal histidine decarboxylase activity. The sympathectomy was verified by fluorescence histochemistry and determination of tissue catecholamines. A drastic reduction in tissue noradrenaline, adrenaline, and dopamine levels occurred after sympathectomy, and fluorescence microscopy showed a complete loss of adrenergic nerve fibers. Vagotomy reduced catecholamine levels in the stomach wall by 50% but did not affect the catecholamine content in the pancreas and small bowel. Surprisingly, combined vagotomy and upper abdominal sympathectomy resulted in lower catecholamine levels than sympathectomy alone in extragastric but not in gastric tissues.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6515311

All patients except one suffered from compensatory sweating

Complications in patients with palmar hyperhidrosis treated with transthoracic endoscopicsympathectomy.

Neurosurgery. 1997 Jul ;41 (1):110-3; discussion 113-5 9218302

OBJECTIVE: To assess the complications in a group of patients with palmar hyperhidrosis treated with transthoracic endoscopic sympathectomy. The extraordinarily high incidence of postoperative compensatory hyperhidrosis in our series is stressed and explained. METHODS: The retrospective study included chart reviews and outpatient assessments. Seventy-two patients underwent T2 or T2-T3 endoscopic sympathectomy for primary palmar hyperhidrosis. Patients' hyperhidrosis severity, precipitating factors, postoperative complications, surgical results, and satisfaction were assessed. Severity of palmar hyperhidrosis and compensatory hyperhidrosis was classified by two grading scales. RESULTS: The success rate of sympathectomy was 93%. All patients except one suffered from compensatory sweating,which was the main cause of patients' dissatisfaction postoperatively. Seventeen percent of the patients (12 of 72 patients) experienced new symptoms of gustatory sweating (facial sweating associated with eating). Twenty-one patients experienced other complications, including pneumothorax, Horner's syndrome,nasal obstruction, and intercostal neuralgia.

These gustatory phenomena were quite different from physiologic gustatory sweating

In a series of 100 bilateral upper dorsal sympathectomiesperformed for palmar hyperhidrosis, gustatory sweating and othergustatory phenomena were reported by 68 of 93 patients (73%),followed up for an average of 11/2 years. These gustatory phenomenawere quite different from physiologic gustatory sweating: awide range of gustatory stimuli caused a variety of phenomenain varied locations. There was a negative correlation betweenthe incidence of these phenomena and the occurrence of Horner'ssyndrome after sympathectomy. Analysis of our observations,and of clinical and experimental work of others, leads to theconclusion that gustatory phenomena after upper dorsal sympathectomyare the result of preganglionic sympathetic regeneration orcollateral sprouting with aberrant synapses in the superiorcervical ganglion.

http://archneur.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/34/10/619

a reduction of the muscular tone and to a secondary neurovascular disorder after sympathectomy

after sympathectomy, very severe discomfort with alarming frequency and intensity

diabetic autonomic neuropathy has already sympathectomized the patient

This diabetic syndrome has been attributed to a lesion of the sympathetic nerve fibres which control sweat secretion [11] and follow the course of the peripheral nerves [12]. This affects the efferent branch of the reflex arch and is identical to that occurring distal to a surgical sympathectomy [13].

There was no difference found between the histological changes in the nerves of the spontaneous anhidrotic patients
(Fig. 1) and those of the two previously sympathectomized patients.

A number of papers have been published which stressed [22-24] the high failure rate of sympathectomy operations in diabetics. We believe that the failure of the operation is due to the fact that diabetic autonomic neuropathy has already sympathectomized the patient. The results of the present study are compatible with this idea.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/v21h52461037653k/

slowing of the heart rate usually occurs on the second to fourth day after sympathectomy

The rate fell to a level between 40 and 6o per minute, the maximal slowing usually occurring on the second to fourth day after operation. Consistent slowing of the rate was not observed after a unilateral thoracic sympathectomy of either side. While there was some recovery from the maximum bradycardia with the passage of time in most patients, relatively slow resting cardiac rates and failure of tachycardia to develop with postural hypotension or exercise persisted in all patients.

Skoog's12 work has shown that there are marked differences in the number and precise location of the accessory ganglion cells in the cervical region in different patients and on the two sides in the same patient.
Annals of Surgery, 1949 October, Volume 130 Number 4

causes of autonomic dysfunction - sympathectomy

The finger wrinkling response is abolished by upper thoracic sympathectomy. The test is also abnormal in some patients with diabetic autonomic dysfunction, the Guillan-Barre syndrome and other peripheral sympathetic dysfunction in limbs. (p.46)

Other causes of autonomic dysfunction without neurological signs include medications, acute autonomic failure, endocrine disease, surgical sympathectomy . (p.100)

Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System

By David Robertson, Italo Biaggioni

Edition: illustrated

Published by Informa Health Care, 1995

ISBN 3718651467, 9783718651467

sympathectomy is a psychosurgery

Successful lawyer died after procedure to cure blushing

Alan Synnott was the country’s leading solicitor specialising in personal injuries.

He had built up a large and very successful practice, but the 44-year-old father of three suffered from social phobia and facial blushing.

The blushing was interfering with his ability to speak in public and to run his office and deal with staff.

He was referred to a surgeon for an operation to stop the blushing but, during the operation, a vein and artery were damaged and massive bleeding occurred.

Yesterday his grieving widow, Eleanor Synnott, settled her action for damages for €5m.

http://www.aclsolicitors.ie/news/5m_payout_to_family_after_fatal_operation/